龚学众，资深翻译、中国翻译协会―专家会员‖、资深留学文书撰稿人、资深英语全科教学专家、“铁人教育工作室”法人代表。一九八四年毕业于原解放军南京外国语学院（现解放军南京国际关系学院）。先后任教于空军某航空学院、清华大学、北京大学、北京外国语大学、外交学院、北京新东方学校等十六所大学和培训机构。先后担任2010/2011/2012/2013年度―中央电视台英语演讲风采大赛‖评委。倡导用―铁人精神‖学习技艺，主张―系统、扎实、认真‖的学风和教风。出版著作：《剑桥雅思阅读词典——《剑1》到《剑8》阅读文章疑难词汇释义》（中国人民大学出版社）、《雅思满分作文―生产线‖教程》（中国人民大学出版社）、《雅思阅读900句》（中国人民大学出版社）、《英汉翻译一本通》（中国人民大学出版社）、《雅思听力直奔九分》（中国人民大学出版社）、《剑桥雅思阅读句式语料库》（中国人民大学出版社）、《雅思作文范文及学生习作评析》（中国人民大学出版社）、《大学英语六级作文怎样得满分》（国防工业出版社）、《大学英语四级作文怎样得满分》（国防工业出版社）。博客：http://blog.sina.com.cn/u/1408974811。
第二章 认识英语与汉语的区别
2.1 什么是“倒金字塔结构”
长期的英语应用和教学中，我总结出了英语在句子层面上的档次——英语句子的“倒金字塔结构”： 第四层次: 语法 + 结构 + 逻辑 + 文化
第三层次: 语法 + 结构 + 逻辑
第二层次: 语法 + 结构
第一层次: 语法
这种“倒金字塔结构”，正是英语学习者要爬的台阶或努力的方向。
“倒金字塔结构”各层次内涵 1）第一层次——语法
它要求，你写出的句子至少应该没有语法错误，否则，你就不具有基本的表达能力。看看下边我的学生们在作业中写的一些句子，想想你自己是否也会写出类似的句子：
例1.Nowadays, an increasing number of people choose to study abroad. Attitudes toward it differ widely. I hold the opinion that it is not only an opportunity, but also a challenge.
分析：it指代不明确。It有两个功能，代替某个词或某个句子。它的前面有opinion、attitudes和number of people，it指的是哪一个呢？看句子的意思，猜测it指的是study abroad。但是，靠读者或考官猜测你的意思可不行，你要自己写清楚。
更正：Nowadays, an increasing number of people choose to study abroad. Attitudes toward it differ widely. I hold the opinion that studying abroad is not only an opportunity but also a challenge.
例2．According to the education, more and more students, when they graduate from high school, they attend to go to college or university.
分析：According to the education没有表达任何信息。…they attend to go to college or university里边多了一个主语they。attend to go to college or university里的attend和go to college意思重叠。
更正：According to statistics, more and more students, after graduating from high school, attend colleges and universities.
例3．…in campus we can make a lot of new friends which is as important as learning knowledge.
分析：作者不会使用非限定性定语从句。
更正：…on campus we can make a lot of new friends, which is as important as learning knowledge.
例4．Nowadays, university becomes much popular that more and more people choosing to attend it. 分析：作者句子能力相当差，缺乏起码的语法知识。 更正：Nowadays, universities become so popular that more and more people choose to attend them. 例5．People will have some good experience which will help you a lot in your life… 分析：people是第三人称复数，后边的you和your与它不一致。
更正：People will have some good experience which will help them a lot in their life… 例6．There are many other reasons can support my point 分析：划线部分是谓语重叠。
更正：There are many other reasons that can support my point. 例7．The people who have been worked for several years… 分析：被动语态用错了。
更正：The people who have been working for several years…
例8．Although we cannot live without money, but there are some more meaningful things than money as the purposes in getting an education.
分析：although与but不能同时联用。
更正： Although we cannot live without money, there are some more meaningful things than money as the purposes in getting an education.
例9．I am sorry for that I can‘t return the books in time. 分析：for是多余的。
更正：I am sorry that I cannot return the books in time.
例10.I borrowed some books from the school library on last Monday. 分析：on是多余的。
更正：I borrowed some books from the school library last Monday. 2）第二层次——语法+结构
语法上正确的句子，未必是好的句子，有时可能问题更严重。
例1：These monthly meetingsgive them a rare chance to pause from a busy schedule and scientific conversations—an opportunity to think more deeply about their profession.（这些会议给了他们一个难得的机会——一个深入反思自己的专业的机会，以使他们可以暂时撇开繁忙的工作和终日枯燥的行话。）
这个句子里，an opportunity to think more deeply about their profession 是a rare chance的同位语，按照常理应该紧紧地跟在chance后边，得到：These monthly meetings give them a rare chance—an opportunity to think more deeply about their profession to pause from a busy schedule and scientific conversations。这样写，会让人误以为to pause from a busy schedule and scientific conversations是profession 的后置定语。把an opportunity to think more deeply about their profession移到后边以后，可以清晰地看出to pause from a busy schedule and scientific conversations是give them a rare chance的目的状语。同样道理，也只有知道了这句话里同位语的移动并在翻译成汉语时把an opportunity to think more deeply about their profession主观地还原到它原来的地方，才能翻译得正确。
例2．Similar attitudes have been noted by James (1989), who noted that sick leave is seen by many workers as a right, like annual holiday leave. 这句话可以改写成：
James, who noted that sick leave is seen by many workers as a right (like annual holiday leave), has noted similar attitudes (1989). 这样的句子，语法上没有错误，但是十分蹩脚。
例3．Unfortunately, they are the ones the organization can least affort to lose—those with the highest skills and experience. 本句里，those with the highest skills and experience是they的同位语。本句可以改为：
Unfortunately, they—those with the highest skills and experience—are the ones the organization can least affort to lose. 但是这样的句子，不会被英国人接受的。
例4．After this technique had been invented, it was only a matter of time before weapon designers adapted it for the detection of submarines. 该技术发明后，武器设计者将其改装用于探测潜水艇之前，就只是个时间问题了。
本句的英语和汉语译文表明了英汉句子结构的一个显著的区别：汉语可以将若干个状语堆砌在主句的前边，但是英语不能这样，否则会形成一个“戴大帽子”的句子，头重脚轻，不符合英语的句子结构习惯的要求。
例5．We hail as masterpieces the cave paintings in southern France and elsewhere, dating back some 20,000 years.
本句等于We hail the cave paintings in southern France and elsewhere as masterpieces, dating back some 20,000 years.
One possibility relates to the ATP-making machinery's emission of free radicals, which are thought to contribute to aging and to such age-related diseases as cancer by damaging cells.
For a long time in the past, even scientists were so puzzled at the phenomenon that it was called a ―magic mirror‖. Today, reproductions of this mirror are being made and sold as souvenirs and they appealed very much to foreign tourists. 如果把 and they 改为which，是否更好呢？
Without a steady supply of fresh blood, without the oxygen it carries, the human brain is quickly impared. 句首堆砌了两个状语，不好。改为Without a steady supply of fresh blood and without the oxygen it carries,并进一步改为Without a steady supply of fresh blood and the oxygen it carries，更好。
信阳南临武汉，北倚郑州，京广铁路、京九铁路、宁西铁路，国道106、107、312和京珠、沪陕、大广高速公路均在此交汇，是连南贯北、承东启西的重要交通枢纽。Sitting between Wuhan and Zhengzhou, two provincial capital cities in Central China’s Hubei and Henan provinces, with the former to the south and the latter to the north, and with the Beijing-Guangzhou, Beijing-Kowloon and Nanjing-Xi’an railways, the State Highways No. 106, No. 107, and No. 312, and the State Expressways Beijing-Zhuhai, Shanghai-Xi’an and Daqing-Guangzhou traversing and crisscrossing here, Xinyang City enjoys an ideal and convenient network of communications and is within easy access from all directions.
3）第三层次——语法+结构+逻辑
语法、结构上都没有错误的句子，也未必是好的句子，有时问题可能还更严重。比较下列例子。
例1．你知道站在大门口的那个女孩叫什么名字吗？
Do you know the name of the girl standing at the gate? Do you know the girl‘s name standing at the gate? 第一句里，the girl standing at the gate等于the girl who stands at the gate。Girl是standing的逻辑主语，语法、结构都没有错误。由于逻辑主语与分词的关系很清楚——动作的施授关系很明显，不会有任何误解。
第二句里，语法和结构一点错误没有，但是the girl‘s name standing at the gate却等于the
girl‘s name that stands at the gate，句子意思成了“女孩的名字站在门口”了。
例2．祝愿所有获得友谊奖章的外国专家和夫人在京期间过得愉快。
I wish all the experts who have been awarded the Medal of Friendship and their spouses a happy stay in Beijing.
I wish all the experts and their spouses who have been awarded the Medal of Friendship a happy stay in Beijing.
汉语句子明显有歧义，可能会被理解为“外国专家和夫人都获奖”了。实际是只有外国专家获奖。因此，第一句的译文是对的。而第二句英语就把汉语的歧义翻译出来了。
例3．配有空调和电视的长途客车连接着本地区的所有国家，是非常舒适的交通工具。 The long distance buses with air conditioning and TV that connect all the countries in the region are very comfortable.
本句里，with air conditioning and TV是buses的后置定语。但是，问题是air conditioning and TV后边有跟了一个定语从句，这样，会把句子误解为“连接着该地区的空调和电视”，脱离了句子的本意。为了克服这种误解，可以改为：
The long distance buses that connect all the countries in the region are very comfortable with air conditioning and TV：把with air conditioning and TV移离它所限定的中心词。或
The long distance buses，with air conditioning and TV，that connect all the countries in the region are very comfortable：在with air conditioning and TV两段加逗号，使之成为插入语，让that引导的定语从句很明显地与buses联系起来。或：
With air conditioning and TV，the long distance busesthat connect all the countries in the region are very comfortable
例4．Rather than a particular method, the success of science has more to do with an attitude common to scientists.
The success of science has more to do with an attitude rather than a particular method common to scientists.
本句较难。句子的原意是“科学的成功与其说与科学家常用的某种具体方法有关，倒不如说与一种态度有关”。
第一句英语，从语法上看，没什么错误。但是这种“冠顶”式的介词结构，其逻辑主语通常被理解为是句子里的主语，即the success of science；如果这样，那句子就会被理解成为“科学的成功、而不是某种具体的方法与某一态度更有密切的关系”。显然，这种理解不是句子的本意。相比而言，第二个句子更好，rather than a particular method common to scientists紧跟在attitude后边。类似的例子如：
As tax payers, parents have contributed to the country‘s system.
显然，As tax payers的逻辑主语是parents，因此，本句可以改为： Parents, as tax payers, have contributed to the country‘s system. 按照这个例句，把上边的句子也改为：
The success of science, rather than a particular method, has more to do with an attitude common to scientists.这样改，语法上没错，甚至是很好的句式，但是，显然这不是该句子的本意。
由此可见，英语句子的工夫很深、很细。 4）第四层次——语法+结构+逻辑+文化
语法、结构、逻辑都不错的句子，仍然未必是好句子。写英语是为了给外国人看的，雅思作文更是如此。句子的最高境界是“母语化”，应该没有不同文化的隔阂，让外国人一看就明白。
比较下列几个句子： 例1．他是个穷光蛋。
He is a poor bright egg. He is a poor man.
He is as poor as a church mouse.
第一句显然是胡诌。 第二句仅仅是达意而已。
第三句达意传神，恰到好处地用外国人最容易接受的成语表达了“穷光蛋”这个意思，因为，西方的教堂(church)是教徒们进行宗教活动的地方，没有人在这里吃饭，自然不会有厨房，也不会有粮食仓库，老鼠想在教堂里做窝，只有等死了。所以as poor as a church mouse指某人一贫如洗。“他是个穷光蛋”，这个汉语句子，任何中国人都听得懂。“He is as poor as a church mouse”，也是任何一个外国人都能看懂的。这样的句子，就跨越了不同文化的障碍。
例2．总体和平、局部战争、总体缓和、局部紧张、总体稳定、局部动荡，将是今后一个时期国际局势的基本态势。
For a period of time in the future, the basic posture of the international situation will be overall peace and localized war, overall easing and localized tension, overall stability and localized turbulence.
For a period of time in the future, overall peace and localized war, overall easing and localized tension, overall stability and localized turbulence will be the basic posture of the international situation
本句汉语的翻译方法，涉及到句子的习惯。
英语比较注重句子的外形结构。一般较短的部分放在前，较长的部分放在后，形成正三角形的句子形状。而倒三角形的句子，是英语不喜欢的。
英语的主语和表语实际是同一个性质的东西。例如“他是张三”，就等于“张三是他”。这种情况下，有一个口诀：
主（语）表（语）同质可互换，短的在前长的在后。
这样，本例的第一个句字就符合了英语的习惯，而第二个句子就拘泥于汉语原文的语序了，形成了倒三角形的句子。
例3．播种面积相对稳定的前提下，只要1996——2010年粮食单产年均递增1%， 2010——2030年年均递增0.7%, 就可以达到预期的粮食总产量目标。
Given a relatively stable sown area and if the annual average increase rate of per unit area yield is one percent from 1996 to 2010 and 0.7 percent from 2011 to 2030, China can achieve its desired total grain output target。
Given a relatively stable sown area, China can achieve its desired total grain output target if the annual average increase rate of per unit area yield is one percent from 1996 to2010 and 0.7 percent from 2011 to 2030.
本句汉语，有两个状语连续排列，比较长，然后才是主句子“就可以达到预期的粮食总产量目标”。这种结构，符合汉语的习惯：先说事情发生的条件，再说事情。这样，就形成了倒三角形的汉语结构。但是，翻译成英语，却不能这样，因此，第一个英语句子不符合英语的习惯。切忌：英语中，如果遇到两个状语，一般要分开放在句子里，原则是“短的在前，长的在后”，因此，第二个英语句子结构是合乎英语习惯的。
2.2 “顿悟”——理解英汉语的根本区别
英汉思维方式不同对两种语言的影响
著名语言学家王力先生在《中国语法理论》“欧化的语法“一章中说：“中国话里多用意合法，联结成分并非必须；西文多用形合法，联结成分在大多数情况下是必不可少的”。
汉语属表意文字（ideograph），重意合（parataxis）；英语属表音文字（phoneme），重形合（hypotaxis）。有人称这是英语与汉语的“异质性特征”。所谓“合”，意思是表述、表达。所谓意合，是指意思的表达不借助于词外在形态（既很少用到连接词、没有英语单词的那些词尾变化），具有高度的概括性和简洁性，表达效率高。所谓形合：词与句子的组合通过一定的外显形态标记来表现，连接词用得多，词本身有具有性、数、格的屈折变化。因此，I
yesterday morning go to school study（我昨天早晨去学校学习），就不是英语，因为它没有“形态”的变化，只是单词的堆砌。
英语和汉语之所以有语言上的形合和意合的区别，主要原因是：
1）汉语侧重于综合性思维，英语侧重于分析性思维。语言是思维的载体。汉民族重视整体观察、对事物进行综合把握。这种思维习惯经历几千年的沉积、凝炼和升华，使汉语民族在思维上形成了善于综合、善于提纲挈领、以纲统领全局的“综合性”思维优势。汉语语言表现的意合特征就是汉语民族综合性思维优势的有力佐证，也是汉语民族运用综合性思维对自己语言的演化和发展做出的理性选择。在语言的具体运用上就是善于用整体观察从句子整体层次上体察语词的涵义，从语段的整体层次上把握各分句的功能，语句间内在的逻辑关系以各分句相对于整个语段的功能均可得以确认。读者以此可意会句间的各种关系，因此连接词基本不用。
在分析考察事物时，西方人长于把细分被考察对象，擅长分析性思维，自然学科如此，人文、绘画等学科同样如此，其实质在于突出和强调个体。从中国传统的国画与西洋的油画中也可以看出这一区别。国画的大写意像是超级概括，西洋油画像恨不能把人物的每一根发丝都画出来。中国中医以“气”和“血”综合施治、统领治疗，也是一个例子。中国古代汉语没有标点、句子成分关系模糊、通假字广泛使用又从另一个侧面说明了汉语的“整体性”。 英语语句中每一成分仅与其相邻的成分发生关系，整个语句按照形式逻辑演绎的方式呈线性排列态势。当线性排列中某一环节形态联系或语义联系十分薄弱时，这种联系必然依靠连接词等其他方式加以弥补，从而使英语等西方语言呈现出形合的外在特征，在表达上不留死角，面面俱到，“法律意识”很强。
例如：“我的文章就像一个丑八怪，不打扮，看上去还顺眼”。这句话，逻辑关系（表面上看）不清楚，句子散、短，有点像“眉毛胡子一把抓”。它就要求我们翻译时，必须理清它的逻辑思路。经过分析，发现这个句子的前后两大部分在逻辑上有转折关系，等于说：虽然/尽管我的文章就像一个丑八怪，不打扮，但是看上去还顺眼。这样，翻译成英语，就必须添加连接词，通过英语的连接词来体现出汉语句子内部的逻辑关系。就是说，汉语没有连接词，而英语必须有。译文如下：Though my writings resemble an ugly monster, it actually looks a little better without any embellishment.有了连接词，英语的句子就没有了汉语的散和短的特点了。如果不用连接词，那么得到的英语译文是这样的：My writings resemble an ugly monster. They are not embellished. They look fine。这样的译文，没有错误，但是显然局限于汉语的思维和语法结构，没有按照英语的思维习惯和语法结构翻译。如果总是这样没有错误的翻译，那么，你的翻译就永远上不了档次。平时我们所说的“英语思维”，其实就是说你能否按照英语的思维习惯和语法结构表达汉语的意思，也就是说你说的和写的句子是否像英语。
判断杂、散、乱的汉语句子的内部逻辑关系，是汉译英时最头疼的一件工作。 又如：
…头上扎着白头绳，乌裙，蓝夹袄，月白背心，… She had a white mourning band round her hair and was wearing a black skirt, blue jacket and pale green bodice.（从汉语的动词和宾语的搭配上讲，“头上”可以“扎着白头绳‖，但是“头上”绝不可能也“扎”着“乌裙，蓝夹袄，月白背心”。其意思必定是说“身上穿者乌裙，蓝夹袄，月白背心”。这中高度“意合”的汉语句子，特别烦人。必须再理解的基础上加词。英语的译文通过had和 was wearing两个词弥补了汉语的模糊意思。）
再如：
中国海域有30多个沉积盆地，面积近70万平方公里，石油资源约250亿吨，天然气资源量约8.4万亿立方米。Scattered in these offshore waters are more than 30 sedimentation basins, with a total area of nearly 700,00 sq km.. It is estimated that there are about 25 billion tons of oil
resources and 8.4 trillion cu m of natural gas in these basins.（原文分为两个逻辑单位，一个是“中国海域有30多个沉积盆地，面积近70万平方公里”，另一个是说在这（面积近70万平方公里的）30多个沉积盆地里有“石油资源约250亿吨，天然气资源量约8.4万亿立方米”。从原文句子看，它是眉毛胡子一把抓式的句子，几乎没有层次感和逻辑感。而翻译时，我们必须先理清它的逻辑关系。译文中加上in these basins就弥补了汉语的逻辑缺陷。） 分析英语等语句时，若运用分析性思维方法抓住语句的主谓主干，辅之以对其他形态标志的辨析，句意便昭然若揭。分析得愈是细致入微，对语句整体上的理解就愈透彻。
2）汉语意重于模糊思维，英语重于逻辑思维。模糊性思维在语言表述上多倾向于采用“非逻辑化”的方式。以汉语为例，“非逻辑化”表述方式具体表现在被描述的事理间虽然具有很强的内在逻辑，但语言的表述形式上却缺乏甚至没有表示逻辑关系的表征词，即缺乏严密的形式逻辑。 相比较而言，西方哲学更注重逻辑的外在表述形式，因而在语言表述上倾向于采用周密 的纯“形式逻辑”的表述风格。增补连接词的原因，是因为连接词本身就是逻辑成分。逻辑“联结词”与语言中表述逻辑的关联词或连接词存在着对应关系。换言之，西方语言中表述逻辑的关联词或连接词是逻辑关系表述时不可或缺的必要成分。
因此推断，英语等西方语言在按照严格的“形式逻辑”演绎方式进行表述时，必然使用及依赖可表示各种逻辑关系的连接词，因而必然呈现出形合的外在特征。这种形合特征是西方民族“形式逻辑”式思维方式的必然结果和客观反映。
例1：
例如一则网络新闻标题：“这次抓捕公安干得漂亮”
又如《京华时报》2007年9月11日第一版的头条新闻： “借节日涨价引发抢购将严惩”
这样的句子，只有靠读者自己意会了，学习汉语的外国人一定看不懂。 “我吃食堂。” 又如：
马是有用的动物。
这句汉语没有“马”是一匹还是几匹，是一种高度概括的思维。“马”的数量、性别、都包含在句子里，说话的人彼此心里一定明白，不需要（汉语里也没有）在“马”后边加复数形式（例如 “马们”）。然而译成英语，则必须给“马”加个“套”以说明它是单数的还是复数的，也就是必须有外在形态手段表示出来。这句话的译文有下列几种：
（1）A horse is a useful animal. （2）The horse is a useful animal. （3）Horses are useful animals.
如果单独翻译这一句，任何一个都是对的，但是如果有上下文（比如两个牧马人面对一群马在交谈），那就必须翻译成Horses are useful animals。
这说明汉语的重概括和抽象，英语重具体和形式。 例2：
同意者举手！
译为：Those who agree please signify by raising their hands. 汉语里“同意者”是几个人，没有说明。“同意者举手”是个简单的“主谓结构”，而英语里必须理解为“同意的人”并为那个“人”规定出它的“数”，然后“同意的人”先做出“signify”的动作，再说出“举手”这个动作的方式是by raising their hands。曾经有同学把它翻译成Agree, hands up! 这倒是一种最简化的翻译，但是它也绝对不是与“同意者举手”完全等同的直译，而是If you agree, please raise your hands的简化。这样的翻译，远不如Those who agree please signify by raising their hands更直译。当然，它也是一种选择，是一种聪明的
变化—句式的变化，是英语功底的体现。由此可见，只要具有驾御英语句子结构的能力、掌握了大量的句式，就没有翻译不出来的句子。
从上述情况看，汉语句子的内在逻辑关系不太明确，而英语就必须说明白。从这个道理上讲“同意者举手！”可以翻译为：
1．Those who agree please signify by raising their hands. 2．People who agree please raise your hands. 3．If you agree, please raise your hands 4. He who agrees please raise his hand. 5. Agree, hands up!
上述译文，似乎哪一个都对应“同意者举手！”这句话。这一比较，说明汉语翻译成英语时有很大的灵活性，可以有多种翻译方式。而这一灵活性正是因为汉语的句子具有很高概括性和模糊性、英语的句子注重形式和具体化、细节化，它可以使我们坚定这样一个信念：汉语的句子都是可以翻译出来的。
又如：
学语言的学生应当了解该预言国的国情。 句子里，由于汉语的模糊性，“学生”一词没有明确其“数”，因此翻译时可以得到两种句子：
1.A language student should have a good understanding of the country where the language is spoken.
2.Language students should have a good understanding of the country where the language is spoken.
请看下列句子错在哪：
Over long period of time in our country, state enterprise is a main provider in respect to financial income of nation. 此句正确答案为：
Over a long period of time in our country, state enterprises are a main provider in respect to financial income of the state. 原文中long period是个可数的名词，绝不能原封不动地用，它要么是单数要么是复数，而从汉语中却看不出来。state enterprise也是同样道理。这告戒我们：
我们在做英汉两种语言翻译的时候，切记汉语的“意”和英语的“形”，简而言之，就是：
不要“得意忘形”！
2.3英汉主要区别及在翻译中的应对
要写出地道的英语，先要了解英汉主要区别：
1）英语的名词必须有数量的变化，汉语的名词数量常常被“隐含”。仍如前例： 马是有用的动物。
A horse is a useful animal. The horse is a useful animal. Horses are useful animals.
2）英语动词有人称、时态的变化，而在汉语里也都被“隐含”了，就是说从汉语的动词里，看不出动作实施者的数量和动作的时间，而英语却要通过为动词增加内部屈折词缀（如-s、-es、-ed、-ing）来表示动作的单复数和时间。
例1．下雨了。It is raining.
例2．他来了。He came here.
3）英语里名词表示动作的情况多，汉语里直接用动词的情况多。 例1.If we only apply book knowledge, we will not get good results.
↓
The application of book knowledge alone won‘t bring you good results.
例2．从心理方面来说，到了老年，有两种危险倾向需要注意。一种是过分地怀念过去。Psychologically there are two dangers to be guarded against in old age. One of these is undue absorption in the past.
例3．那个步行的男子又走了一两步，站住了脚，转过身来。The pedestrian, after another pace or two, halted, and turned round.
例4．He occasionally gave a smart nod, as if in confirmation of some opinion, though he was not thinking of anything in particular.待一会，他就轻快地把头一点，好象是对某一个意见表示赞同似的，其实他心理头可没想什么特别的事。
例5．The pedestrian, after another pace or two, halted, and turned round.那个步行的男子又走了一两步，站住了脚，转过身来。
例6．他们看见女孩拾煤核就捣乱，揪我的小辫，向我身上扔虫子，吓得我看见他们就躲。…Because when they found me scavenging, they made trouble, pulling my plait or throwing insects at me，so that the sight of them frightened me away. 例7．近代中国虽屡遭列强欺凌，国势衰败，但是经过全民族的百年抗争，又以巨人的姿态重新战立起来。In modern times, the frequent bullying and humiliation by imperialist powers once weakened China. However, after a hundred years‘ struggle of the entire Chinese nation, China has stood up again as a giant.
例8．我国先秦思想家就提出了“亲仁善邻，国之宝也”的思想，反映了自古以来中国人民就希望天下太平、同各国人民友好相处。Chinese thinkers of the pre-Qin days (over 2000 years ago) advanced the doctrine ―loving people and treating neighbors kindly are most valuable to a country‖. This is a reflection of the aspiration of the Chinese people for a peaceful world where people of all countries live in harmony.
例9．中国民主革命的先行者孙中山首先提出了“振兴中华”的口号，…
Dr. SunYat-sen, China‘s forerunner in the democratic revolution, was the first to put forward the slogan of ―rejuvenation of China‖.
例10．Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holborn Bar on 18 June 1764.
4）英语介词用得多，简直就是prepositional language，而汉语很多情况下不用介词。 例1．他不是那块料。He‘s not cut out for it.
例2．局势每况愈下。The situation has gone from bad to worse.
5）英语里被动语态用得多，汉语里被动式用得少。被动语态是英语一个重要的外显形态。它说明英语的一个“执拗”的“脾气”——丁是丁，卯是卯，绝不含糊。例如：
鲸鱼杀死以后，把鲸脂剥下来熬油，这项工作有的是在船上进行的，有的是在岸上进行的。When the whale is killed, the blubber is stripped off and boiled down, either on board ship or on shore.
6）英语里，一般先说动作，再说动作发生的地点、时间、条件、方式等。汉语相反。例如：
例1．Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao delivers a report on the work of the government to the Fourth Session of the Tenth National Peopl‘s Congress (NPC) of China at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing March 5, 2006.（中国政府官方网站2006年3月5日）
例2．Johnson signed the contract for the Dictionary with the bookseller Robert Dosley at a breakfast held at the Golden Anchor Inn near Holborn Bar on 18 June 1764.
7）英语一般不重复，代称用得多，不但名词可以用代词来替代，动词、形容词、副词和整个句子都可以有相应的词来替代。汉语则不怕重复，实称用得多。例如：
例1．钻探石油的人如果在一个地方得不到预期的结果，就到另一个地方去钻探。 The drillers go to another if they are disappointed at one place,…（一般实词出现在主句子里，代词出现在从句里）
例2．In his book Principles and Implications of Cognitive Psychology, Neisser defines listening as a ―temporally extended activity‖… 在他的《认知心里学的原理与意义》一书里，纳赛尔将“听”定义为“暂时延长了的行为”…
例3．好莱坞从以存在外星生命形式的假想为基础拍摄的电影中挣到了很多钱；现在，阿米尔•阿克泽尔也开始着手证明外星生命确实存在了。Hollywood made a lot of money from movies based on the assumption that alien life-forms exist; and now Amir Aczel sets out to prove they do. (they do 代替了alien life-forms exist)
例4．显然鱼有时表现出了跟人类一样的获得知识的能力。It is clear that fish have sometimes shown their ability to gain knowledge as man does. （does代替了gain knowledge）
例5．她的衣服漂亮，玛丽的也漂亮。Her dress is so beautiful, so is Mary‘s.（so代替了前边的形容词beautiful）
例6．这里与老家科罗拉多的情况一点也不一样。科罗拉多也下雨。This is nothing like back home in Colorado. We have rains there, too.（there代替了前边的状语in Colorado）
例7．她午饭后一般都要休息一会，这是她的习惯。She usually has a short rest after lunch, as is her habit.（as代替了前边整个一句）
例8．按照《联合国海洋法公约》的规定，中国还对广阔的大陆架和专属经济区行使主权权利和管辖权。 China also exercises sovereignty and jurisdiction over the vast continental shelves and exclusive economic zones ( EEZs)，as defined by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. （as代替了前边整个一句。）
例9．这一部分的目的是让读者能模拟你所进行的试验，假如他想借此证实或反驳你的结论的话。The goal of the procedures section is to allow the reader to duplicate the experiment if such were desired to confirm, or refute, your findings. (such代替了to duplicate the experiment)
例10．我把衣服紧紧抱在怀里，飞快跑回家。回到家里，打开一看…Clutching my gown to my heart, I flew home, and there, unfolding it,…（there 代替了home）
例11．有些动物也出油，但都没有鲸鱼出得多。A few other creatures yield oil, but none so much as the whale. ( but none so much as the whale等于but none of them yield so much oil as the whale does)
例12．这种油可以用来开坦克、开飞机、开军舰、开汽车、开柴油机，……the oil that drives tanks, aeroplanes and warships, motor-cars and diesel locomotives,…（英语就一个drive带五个宾语，汉语把drive 分别说出来）
例13．我常常立在这长案旁边，吃我的简单早餐── 一包巧克力糖。吃过早餐，就出来坐在宫门的台阶上，欣赏宫门口那一座大花坛，… I would often stand at the table, having my simple breakfast──a bar of chocolate. After that, I would often come out and sit on the steps at the entrance of the palace, enjoying the big flower beds near the gate…（第二句里的“吃过早餐”显然指前一句的“吃我的简单早餐”。英语中的上下句里，再次提到前一句里的一个事物时，可以用代词代替。）
例14．I remember where a toad may live and what time the birds awaken in the summer----and what tree and seasons smelled like----how people looked and walked and smelled even.我记得蛤蟆喜欢在什么地方栖身，鸟雀夏天早晨什么时候醒来——我还记得树木和不同季节特有的气息——记得人们的容貌、走路的姿态、甚至身上的气味。(英语里只说一次remember，汉语说了三次“记得”)
例15．腊月二十三灶王爷上天，后台封上戏箱，要等到年初一开戏。封箱回戏，等于演员门封嘴大家可苦了。On the twenty-third of the twelfth lunar month the Kitchen God went up
to heaven, and the theater shut down until New Year‘s Day. When that happened, actors‘ pay stopped and they were hard up to it. （后一句的that一词代替了前边的“后台封上戏箱，要等到年初一开戏”。）
例16．A few other creatures yield oil, but none so much as the whale.有些动物也出油，但都没有鲸鱼出得多。( but none so much as the whale等于but none of them yield so much oil as the whale does.)
例17．Similarly, a section that begins with a paragraph outlining the main points it is going to deal with is easier to follow than one that does not.同样道理，一个章节如果以一个列出了各主要论点的段落开始论述，那么它就比没有列出主要论点的章节更容易让人读懂。(原文中one that does not等于one paragraph that does not outline the main points。)
例18．English grammar is very difficult and few writers have avoided making mistakes in it. 英语语法十分困难，作家很少不犯语法错误的。（原文中的in it等于in English grammar。）
例19．……setting aside big tracts of land where nobody can fish, shoot, hunt, nor harm a single living creature with furs, fins or feathers.……圈出大片土地，不准钓鱼，不准打鸟，不准打猎，凡是长皮毛的或者长鳍的动物，一概不许伤害。（这句话里，汉语重复了“不准”，而这种重复在英语里几乎是不允许的。）
例20．Many factors must be considered when selecting informants—whether one is working with single speakers ( a common situation when languages have not been described before), two people interacting,small groups or large-scale samples. 当选择信息提供着时，许多因素都必须被考虑进去，不管一个人是与单一语言者合作（语言没有被研究之前的一个常见现象）、与两名互动者合作、与小组合作还是拥有大规模的样本。
例21．Another strange feature of the Japanese pagoda is that, because the building tapers, with each successive floor plan being smaller than the one below, none of the vertical pillars that carry the weight of the building is connected to its corresponding pillar above.
日本宝塔的另一个奇异的特点是：由于宝塔向上渐小，且每层楼的平面图都小于下边的楼层，承载宝塔重量的立柱中没有一个与其上边对应的柱子连接。
英语里，一般同一句话不重复用词。表示“宝塔”时，用了pagoda和building，但是，汉语一律多次使用“宝塔”这个词。
8）英语里连词用得多，汉语里连词用得少。英语句子的逻辑外显，思维的过程必须用表示逻辑发展关系的连接词表现出来，而汉语则常常把连接词“隐含”起来。这就要求在写英语句子的时候，必须把汉语里“隐含”的连接词明示出来。例如：
例1．我的文章就像一个丑八怪，不打扮，看起来还顺眼。 Though my writings resemble an ugly monster, it actually looks a little better without any embellishment. (英语句子加了连词though，从而把汉语的逻辑关系明示出来，也把散、短的汉语连成了浑然一体的一个句子)
例2．我们正在聊着，只见一条颜色鲜艳的捕捞沙丁鱼的船抛了锚。As we chatted, a brightly painted sardine boat dropped anchor. （英语句子加上了as）
例3．中国将努力促进国内粮食生产，在正常情况下，粮食自给率不低于95%，净进口量不超过国内消费量的5%。 China endeavors to increase its grain production so that its self-sufficiency rate of grain under normal conditions will be above 95 percent and the net import rate 5 percent, or even less, of the total consumption quantity.（“中国将努力促进国内粮食生产”的目的，是为了“在正常情况下，粮食自给率不低于95%，净进口量不超过国内消费量的5%”，因此，英译时加上so that，以体现前后的“动作+目的”的关系） 例4．目前，农业科技在中国农业增产中的贡献率约为35%，世界上农业发达国家在60%以上。At present, the contribution made by science and technology to agriculture accounts for about 35% of the agricultural production increase, while it exceeds 60% in the agriculturally asvanced countries. (前后半句显然具有相反对比的关系，因此英语里加了while)
例5．早晨去喊嗓子，我带着一个小篮拾煤核，为了回家取暖。拾煤核也要放聪明点，…他们看见女孩拾煤核就捣乱，揪我的小辫，向我身上扔虫子，吓得我看见他们就躲。…Each morning when I went out to practice singing in the open air, I took a little basket to scrounge for cinders for our stove. Even when scrounging for cinders, you had to have your wits about you…Because when they found me scavenging, they made trouble, pulling my plait or throwing insects at me，so that the sight of them frightened me away. （汉语的逻辑关系很不清晰，译成英语时，加了关系词，使逻辑关系清晰了。）
（英语如妖艳的贵妇人，打扮精细到每一个细节，汉语像内涵深刻、言简意赅、神闲气静的博学之士，不必事事言出。因此写英语句子不要“得（汉语之）意忘（英语之）形”！）
● 资料：英语同一句话用词不重复的例子：
下列句子里有下划线的单词，全是同义词。对比汉语翻译，您可以看出英语在同一句话 里不重复用词的“执拗”的特点。
Some water experts are now demanding that existing infrastructure be used in smarter ways rather than building new facilities, which is increasingly considered the option of last, not first, resort.
目前，有专家建议：更正确地使用现有的设施，而不是建设新的设施。这越来越被认为是首选而非最后的选择了。
Agency rates and media costs have reached the limit of what many companies are prepared to pay. 例1.
World food output per head has risen by 4 percent between the 1970s and 1980s mainly as a result of increases in yields from land already in cultivation, but also because more land has been brought under the plough.
本句里的划线部分的意思都是―因为‖。 例2.
National governments, by and large, kept a much firmer hand on truck and railroad tariffs than on charges for ocean freight. 本句里的划线部分的意思都是“费用”。
例3. Parents are often upset when their children praise the homes of their friends and regard it as a slur on their own cooking, or cleaning, or furniture, and often are foolish enough to let the adolescents see that they are annoyed.
本句里的划线部分的意思都是“厌烦”。
例4. （选自《新概念英语》第四册第34课）
Parents would be greatly surprised and deeply touched if they realized how much belief their children usually have in their character and infallibility, and how much this faith means to a child. 本句里的划线部分的意思都是“信任”。 例5.
And indeed since social scientists have had considerable difficulty explaining weightier topics, such as work or politics, it might be thought that they would have great difficulties in accounting for more trivial phenomena such as holidaymaking.
本句里的划线部分的意思都是“解释”。 例6.
The latter, which multiply rapidly in early spring, produce two to five generations annually. 本句里的划线部分的意思都是“繁殖”。 例6.
A study of the environmental effects, conducted in 1993, found that the end of fertiliser subsidies had been followed by a fall in fertiliser use ( a fall compounded by the decline in world commodity prices, which cut farm incomes).
本句里的划线部分都是“下降”的意思。
●As the scheme progressed, it became harder to secure prizes and this contributed to the program‘s losing momentum and finally ceasing.
●A 1993 study by the European Federation for Transport and Environment found that car transport is seven times as costly as rail travel in terms of the external social costs it entails such as congestion, accidents, pollution, loss of cropland and natural habitats, depletion of oil resources, and so on. 欧洲交通与环境联盟1993年进行的一项调研发现，就所遭受的客观的社会损失（如拥塞、污染、农田和自然栖息地的消失、自然资源的损耗等）而言，汽车交通比轨道交通的代价高出六倍。
●Research in Britain has shown that ―green consumers‖ continue to flourish as a significant group amongst shoppers. 英国的研究表明， “绿色消费者”继续作为消费者中的一个重要的群体而活跃着。
The objective of the Human Genome Project is simple to state, but audacious in scope: to
map and analyze every single gene within the double helix of humanity‘s DNA.
●In addition the conversation used to prepare the budgeted accounts are those commonly applied to the preparation of accounts for publication.
●Other detractors might argue that in certain academic areas, particularly the arts and humanities, research and intellectually inquiry amount to little more than a personal quest for happiness or pleasure.
Historyteaches and reinforces what we believe in , what we stand for, and what we ought to be willing to stand up for.
What is so worrisome about the college student who dosen‘t know that George Washington was the commanding American general at Yorktown is that he also, therefore, has no ideal that it was Washington who commanded the Continental Army through eight long years in the struggle for independence.
For example, vision is obviously more useful to species inhabiting clear open waters than to those living in turbid rivers and flooded plains. 例如，视力对于居住在清澈水域里的物种显然比生活在混浊的河水和平原上泛滥洪水中的物种更有用。
What‘ so worrisome about the college student who doesn‘t know that George Washington was the commanding American general at Yorktwon is that he also, therefore, has no idea that it was Washington who commanded the Continental Army through eight years in the struggles for independence.
9）英语句子里都有主语，汉语句子的主语常被“隐含”。
例1．在播种面积相对稳定的前提下，只要1996——2010年粮食单产年均递增1%， 2010——2030年年均递增0.7%, 就可以达到预期的粮食总产量目标。Given a relatively stable sown area, China can achieve its desired total grain output target if the annual average increase rate of per unit area yield is one percent from 1996 to2010 and 0.7 percent from 2011 to 2030. （汉语中，“就可以达到预期的粮食总产量目标”没有说明主语是谁。但是，根据上下文，可知这个主语是“中国”，因此翻译为China can achieve its desired total grain output target；也可以把“就可以达到预期的粮食总产量目标”翻译为被动语态，得到the desired total grain output can be achieved。两种办法都是为了弥补汉语中没有主语的缺陷。此处的“没有主语”其实是说，因为前后关系很明显，所以主语被“隐含”了。但是英语不能这样，必须明确主语。）
例2．They used this kind of scare tactic when I was growing up. I wonder what they use today. 我小的时候，他们用过这种吓唬人的办法。现在用什么办法，就不得而知了。（英语
I wonder what they use today里的they到了汉语里，被“隐含”了，因为，前边说过They，再提到时就不重复说“他们”了。这个例子从反面验证了一个道理：把英语翻译成汉语时，不必把每一个主语都翻译出来。）
本句汉语里显然没有主语，只有通过上下文才知道主语是“中国”，因此在写成英语的时候加上主语。
10）英语表达意思时，“绕着说”的现象多，汉语“直言”的现象多。
例1．This shows how long it was before we deemed it necessary to make sure that all our children could share in the knowledge accumulated by the ‗happy few‘ during the past centuries. 例2．Impossible is nothing. 例3．He has not been here until 9 pm.
例4．No necessity of making a living away from home results in neglect of children, and no father is confronted with his inability to ―buy‖ an education for his child.
例5．Unfortunately, they are the ones the organization can least afford to lose- those with the highest skills and experience.
例6．But they are rarely competitive with fossil fuel unless subsidized- and growing them does no less environmental harm than other crops.
11）英语里常以抽象名词做主语，后面接表示具体动作的动词。这种主谓搭配，在汉语里很少用；翻译时，一般都加上主语。例如：
Anger and bitterness had preyed upon me continually for weeks and a deep languor had succeeded this passionate struggle. 几个星期以来，我又气又恨，感到非常苦恼，这种感情上的激烈斗争过去之后，我感到浑身无力。
12）语序方式不同，在英语里十分“顺口”的词，无法直接译过来，这时要将其“拉出来”单独翻译。这样做，就是为了照顾汉语的习惯。例如：
It is easy to think to oneself that one‘s emotions used to be more vivid than they are, and one‘s mind more keen. 人们往往会对自己说，我过去感情多么丰富，思想多么敏锐，现在不行了。
13）英语叙事时先表感受，再说与感受有关的动作，最后才说最初发生的事情。汉语则相反，往往按照事情发生的顺序来叙述，最后才说个人的感受。例如：
The most important day I remember in all my life is the one on which my teacher，Anne Mansfield Sullivan, came to me. I am filled with wonder when I consider the immeasurable contrast between the two lives which it connects. 在我的记忆里，安妮·曼斯菲尔德·沙利文老师来的那一天，是我一生中最重要的日子。从这一天开始，我的生活和以前迥然不同，一想到这一点，我就感到非常兴奋。
14) 英语同一句子、段落甚至文章里，用词不重复，汉语里用词重复多 例如：
商店领导组织商店职工参加调查小组，组织他们到附近街道进行调查研究，收集对商店的意见。然后店领导组织全店职工讨论改进服务态度，而且每年组织这种活动。
本句里，汉语有四个“组织”，但是译成英语绝对不能用四个organize。得到译文如下： The leadership of the shop organized some of the shop assistants into market research groups and sent them to neighborhoods where they collected opinions of the shop. Then the leadership made arrangement for the whole shop to discuss ways of improving service. This sort of activity was conducted every year. “变”是用英语写作和翻译在用词上的的第一原则！在英语里，同一句子、同一段内部以及上下相连的几段里，坚决不重复使用单词。这是英语最大的特征之一。
英语同一句子、同一段落、同一文章里用词“变”的例子如下： 1)同一个句子里表达同一个意思，用词要变 例1.
World food output per head has risen by 4 percent between the 1970s and 1980s mainly as a result of increases in yields from land already in cultivation, but also because more land has been brought under the plough.
本句里的划线部分的意思都是―因为‖。 例2.
National governments, by and large, kept a much firmer hand on truck and railroad tariffs than on charges for ocean freight. 本句里的划线部分的意思都是“费用”。 例3.
Parents are often upset when their children praise the homes of their friends and regard it as a slur on their own cooking, or cleaning, or furniture, and often are foolish enough to let the adolescents see that they are annoyed.
本句里的划线部分的意思都是“厌烦”。 例4.
Parents would be greatly surprised and deeply touched if they realized how much belief their children usually have in their character and infallibility, and how much this faith means to a child. 本句里的划线部分的意思都是“信任”。 例5.
And indeed since social scientists have had considerable difficulty explaining weightier topics, such as work or politics, it might be thought that they would have great difficulties in accounting for more trivial phenomena such as holidaymaking.
本句里的划线部分的意思都是“解释”。 例6.
The latter, which multiply rapidly in early spring, produce two to five generations annually. 本句里的划线部分的意思都是“繁殖”。 例6.
A study of the environmental effects, conducted in 1993, found that the end of fertiliser subsidies had been followed by a fall in fertiliser use ( a fall compounded by the decline in world commodity prices, which cut farm incomes).
本句里的划线部分都是“下降”的意思。 2)同一个段落里表达同一个意思，用词要变 例1.
Pupils did not volunteer ideas that suggested that they appreciated the complexity of causes of rainforests destruction. In other words, they gave no indication of an appreciation of either the range of ways in which rainforests are important or the complex social, economic and political factors which drive the activities which are destroying the rainforests.
本段里的划线部分都表示“理解/知道”，但一个用了动词，另一个用了名词+of+宾语的结构——就是不重复！
例2.
Here we have two radically different explanations for why so many teacher-subjects were willing to forgo their sense of personal responsibility for the sake of an institutional authority figure. The problem for biologists, psychologists and anthropologists is to sort out which of these two polar explanations is more plausible.
段中的划线部分的词义完全一样，都表示“截然不同的解释”。 例3.
The fourth factor is poor individual perception. People worry that the endless rise in the amount of stuff everyone throws away will cause the world to run out of places to dispose of waste. Yet, even if America‘s trash output continues to rise as it has done in the past, and even if the American population doubles by 2100, all the rubbish America produces through the entire 21st century will still take up only one-12000th of the area of the entire United States.
段中的划线部分的词义都是“垃圾”的意思。 例4.
According to Professor Newman, the larger Australian city of Melbourne is a rather unusual city in this sort of comparison. He describes it as two cities: ―A European city surrounded by a car-dependent one‖. Melbourne‘s large tram network has made car use in the inner city much
lower, but the outer surburbs have the same car-based structure as most other Australian cities. The explosion in demand for accommodation in the inner suburbs of Melboure suggests a recent change in many people‘s preferences as to where they live.
段中的划线部分的词义完全一样，都表示“依赖汽车的”。 例5.
In the UK, travel times to work had been stable for at least six centuries, with people avoiding situations that required them to spend more than half an hour traveling to work. Trains and cars initially allowed people to live at greater distances without taking longer to reach their destination. However, public infrastructure did not keep pace with urban sprawl, causing massive congestion problems which now make commuting times far higher. 段中的划线部分的词义完全一样，都表示“上班途中用去的时间”。 例6.
Managers need to make rewards contingent on performance. To reward factors other than performance will only reinforce those other factors. Key rewards such as pay increases and promotions or advancements should be allocated for the attainment of the employee‘s specific goals. Consistent with maximizing the impact of rewards, managers should look for ways to increase their visibility. Eliminating the secrecy surrounding pay by openly communicating everyone‘s remuneration, publicizing performance bonuses and allocating annual salary increases in a lump sum rather than spreading them out over an entire year are examples of actions that will make rewards more visible and potentially more motivating.
本段里：
pay与remuneration的意思一样，都是“薪酬”的意思。
communicating与publicising的意思一样，都是“告知”的意思。
例7．(选自中国政府网站(2005-7-26 16:11:00)Financial Industry Performance Remained Stable)
New RMB loans extended in the first half of 2005 totaled RMB 1.45 trillion yuan, with the growth increasing year-on-year by RMB 24 billion yuan. New loans granted to households stood at RMB 270.2 billion yuan, 148 billion yuan less than that recorded a year earlier. In particular, loans issued to support household business development grew by RMB 150.9 billion yuan, ……
段中的划线部分词义完全一样，都表示“发放(贷款)/给予”的意思。 例8.
Geological movements are not the only occurences to trigger an earthquake. Human activity, most often the filling of reservoirs with extraordinarily large amounts of water, can also cause earthquakes. Similarly, massive explosions can wreak havoc, too. 段中的trigger、cause和wreak都是“引起”的意思。 例9.
…Most species burrow into the soil and bury dung in tunnels directly underneath the pats, which are hollowed out from within. Some large species originating from France excavate tunnels to a depth of approximately 30cm below the dung pat…
段中的burrow和excavate都是“挖洞”的意思。
3)同一个文章不同段落里，表达同一个意思，用词要变 例1.
A new study conducted for the World Bank by Murdoch University‘s Institute for Science and Technology Policy(ISTP) has demonstrated that public transport is more efficient than cars. The study compared the proportion of wealth poured into transport by thirty-seven cities around the world. This included the public and private costs of building, maintaining and using a transport system.
The study found that the Western Australian city of Perth is a good example of city with minimal public transport. As a result, 17% of its wealth went into transport costs. Some European and Asian cities, on the other hand, spent as little as 5%. Professor Peter Newman, ISTP Director, pointed out that these more efficientcities were able to put the differences into attracting industry and jobs or creating a better place to live.
上述两段中的划线部分的词义是一样的，都表示“投资/注入(资金)”的意思。 例2.
全文第三段的exacerbate、第四段的compound、第七段的 aggravate和make…worse，都表示“使…更坏、加剧”的意思。
例3.
Now I‘d like to talk about something that is not talked about often but that is actually quite common:depression. Most people don‘t like to talk about this subject, often considering it a taboo subject best left for people to deal with themselves. The fact is, however, that the best solution for depression is relating to other people. And we all feel depressed at one time or another in our lives, and there is no end to the reason why people feel depressed. Some people are depressed because of family problems, such as between a husband and wife, while others suffer from low self-esteem. Yet others are suffering deep and prolonged depression because of the loss of a loved one. And yet others have a physical or physiological source of depression.
Regardless of the source, depression can affect every area of our lives. It can drain our energy for living, diminish our interest in everyday activities, and, if serious enough, even lead to thoughts of despair or even suicide. In fact, depression is the leading cause of suicide. And because people don‘t want to talk about their depression, it is often very hard to spot.
But no matter the cause or severity, we can learn to cope with the dark clouds that come into our lives and recover to live in normal and healthy relationships with other people.
本文里：
deal with、cope with是同义词互换。 reason、source、cause是同义词互换。 regardless of、no matter是同义词互换。
4) 同一句话里，汉语往往有重复性表述，英语不需要。例如：
例一，他强调，国务院各部门在反腐败斗争中责任重大，所处的地位非常重要。
例二，要对外汇和外债进行集中管理，把外汇和外债的管理权统一划归中央有关部门。 依据英语的思维，例一里的“所处的地位非常重要”和例二里的“把外汇和外债的管理权统一划归中央有关部门”分别是对“国务院各部门在反腐败斗争中责任重大”和“对外汇和外债进行集中管理”的补充说明。这些“补充说明的部分是self-evident的话，是赘述，翻译时完全可以省掉。因此得到译文：
He stressed that all State Council departments have an important responsibility in combating corruption.
We should place the power to manage foreign exchange and debt in the hands of the central authorities.
类似的汉语例子，我们随处都可以遇到，不要像照镜子似地一一翻译出来。其他汉语例子如（下划线部分是不必翻译的self-evident的部分）：
我们要厉行节约，不乱花一分钱。 要控制环境污染，努力保护环境。
我们必将胜利，敌人必将失败。
15）英语的结构比较紧，汉语的结构比较松。英语之所以“紧”，就是因为它的逻辑严 谨；汉语之所以“松”，也是因为它（表面上）逻辑不严密。因此，英语的一个句子可能“破”成两个或三个汉语分句。反之，几个“破”汉语句子写成英语句子时，一般会“合”成为一个“紧”的句子。
北京外国语大学庄绎传教授，在《汉英翻译500例》一书中对英、汉语的根本区别做了一个小结：“我感觉汉语的句子结构好比一根竹子，一节一节地连下去，而英语的句子结构好比一串葡萄，主干可能很短，累累的果实附着在上面。”我把他的话演绎如下：英语句子比较紧、长、绕，汉语句子比较松、短、直。你写的英语句子要用这六个字衡量、检查一下。
下列这些例句就是地道的英语：
例1．For all but the last six, I have done the work—all the tedious details that make the difference between victory and defeat on election day—while men reaped the rewards, which is almost invariably the lot of women in politics.
本句里， all the tedious details that make the difference between victory and defeat on election day是work的同位语。同位语用于补充说明，是使英语句子逻辑更加完整、清晰的一种手段。
例2．The goal of higher education of a nation is to improve and strengthen the general level of intellectual and professional capacity of its labor force, thereby increasing the competency of the nation in the global economy. 本句里，thereby increasing the competency of the nation in the global economy是分词结构做结果状语。这种用法是英语书面语里使用率极高的一种。
例3．Similarly, a section that begins with a paragraph outlining the main points it is going to deal with is easier to follow than one that does not.
本句话是《大学英语精读第六册》里的。这句话，几乎需要英语专业八级的水平才能写出来。它是一个套叠了分词后置定语和定语从句的复杂句子。我把它还原如下：
Similarly, a section that begins with a paragraph which outlines the main points that it is going to deal with is easier to follow than one that does not outline the main points. 例4．I had traveled only two hours one day when the winds increased so much that I had to put my tent up before the winds became to strong.
本句是高中英语教材第一册的句子，用到了一个when引导的时间状语从句，且从句里用到so much that表示结果，后跟了一个before引导的时间状语从句——可以算的上是一个套叠状语从句了。
例5．You have only got into a bank when their main computer is broken to appreciate the chaos that would occur if computers were suddenly removed world –wide.
本句用到了一个从句插入语when their main computer is broken和一个条件状语从句if computers were suddenly removed world –wide。写出这样的句子，少说也能站在8分的水平上。
例6．Would it be not better to allow people to become expert in a way most suited to them rather than oblige them to follow a set course of instruction, which may offer no opportunity for them to develop skills in which they would‘ve become expert if left to themselves?
本句用到了一个分词后置定语most suited to them、一个“连环套”式的定语从句which may offer no opportunity for them to develop skills in which they would‘ve become expert if left to themselves。
例7．The consumption of hamburgers and pizza has risen steadily over the 20 year period to 1990 while the consumption of fish and chips has been in decline over that same period with a slight increase in popularity since 1985.
本句用到了while引导的一个从句。
例8．While newspapers and TV stations may aim to report world events accurately, be they
natural or human disasters, political events or the horrors of war, it is also true that their main objective is to sell newspapers and attract listeners and viewers to their stations.
本句用到了从句While newspapers and TV stations may aim to report world events accurately、倒装让步状语从句做插入语be they natural or human disasters和形式主语结构it is also true that…。
例9．下文是从《大学英语精读第六册》（第102页）中选的一个超长的英语句子： This happened for many complex reasons having to do with the sexual revolution, the efforts of the women‘s movement on the family, the dying off of the generation scarred by the Great Depression of the 1930s, a growing disillusionment with the ability of our institutions to deliver the goods, the failure of the economy to live up to people‘s expectations of a steady annual increase in income, a questioning of whether the values of a consumption economy are worth the hard work that pays for all the luxuries, an awareness that energy shortages and environmental hazards call for a new orientation, and a further evolution of individualism into the quest for less conforming personal life-styles.
本句足以体现英语“紧、长、绕”的特点。其实，本句极其简单，句子的主语和谓语仅为This happened，for many complex reasons是原因状语，后边的所有部分都是分词结构做complex reasons的后置定语。
例10．When Chou En-lai‘s door opened they saw a slender man of more than average height with gleaming eyes and a face so striking that it bordered on the beautiful. 周恩来的房门打开时，他们看到的是一个身材瘦长、比普通人略高一点的人，两眼闪着光辉，面貌很引人注意，称得上清秀。
本句里，英语通过一系列的后置定语构成了一个长句子，而汉语则把英语完整的句子打破，出现了散而短的句子。
例11．As I lie awake in bed, listening to the sound of those razor-sharp drops pounding on the pavement, my mind goes reeling down dark corridors, teeming with agonizing flashbacks, and a chill from within fills me with dread. 我躺在床上，睡不着，听着雨点儿落在路面上啪啪作响。我思绪万千，恍恍惚惚进入了一条幽暗的甬道，回想起许多痛苦的往事。心里一阵冰凉，不禁感到毛骨悚然。
本句汉语译文把原来紧凑的英语打散了。
例12．Presently he was met by an elderly parson astride on a grey mare, who, as he rode, hummed a wandering tune. 他往前刚走了一会，就有一个上年纪的牧师，跨着一匹灰色的骡马，一路信口哼着一个小调儿，迎面儿走来。
本句里，英语是一个通过一系列后置定语写成的一个完整句子，汉语做不到，必须分成若干小句子。文学翻译尤其如此。
例13．Don‘t you really know, Durbeyfield, that you are the lineal representative of the ancient and knightly family of the d‘Urbervilles, who derive their descent from Sir Pagan d‘Urberville, that renowned knight who came from Normandy with William the Conqueror, as appears by Battle Abbey Roll?德比，你真不知道你就是那古老的武士世家德伯氏的嫡派子孙吗？德伯氏的始祖是那位有名气的武士裴根•德伯爵士，据“纪功寺谱”上说，他是跟着胜利王威廉从诺曼底来到英国的。
本句里，英语通过三个定语从句构成了一个完整的句子，汉语则把英语中的定语从句分别写成了单独的句子。
例14．Today, being driven by the necessity of doing something for himself, he entered the drug store which occupied the principal corner, facing 14th street at Baltimore, and finding a girl cashier in a small glass cage near the door, asked of her who was in charge of the soda fountain. 今天他因为急于要给自己想个办法，迫不得已，便走进了那家杂货店。这家店铺坐落在巴尔
第摩街路口，正面是十四号街，地位正当要冲。他看见靠近门口的一座小玻璃柜房里有一个女出纳员，就去向她打听卖汽水的柜台归谁负责。
本句里，英语通过几个分词结构构成了一个紧凑的完整句子，汉语则把那些分词结构写成了单独的句子。
例15．She nodded in the direction of a short, meticulously dressed man of about thirty-five, who was arranging an especial display of toilet novelties on the top of a glass case. 她朝一个三十五岁上下的矮个子男人那边点点头。那个人穿得很讲究，一点也不马虎。他正在布置一只玻璃柜上的一些新奇化妆品，要摆成一种特别的式样。
本句里，英语通过一个分词结构和一个定语从句写成一个完整的句子，汉语则把分词结构和定语从句写成独立的句子。
Now a long-term study carried out in Nicaragua has eliminated these
factors by showing that teaching reading to poor adult women, who would otherwise have remained illiterate, has a direct effect on their children's health and survival. 在尼加拉瓜进行的一项长期的研究排 除了上述因素，它表明教会贫穷的妇女识字会对她们的孩子的健康 和生存有直接的影响。这些妇女如果不接受教育就会继续是文盲。
汉译英的例子从反面验证了这个道理：
例1．当时的资产阶级知识分子，是五四运动的右翼，到了第二个时期，他们中间的大部分就和敌人妥协，站在反动方面了。The bourgeois intellectuals, who constituted the right wing
th
of the May 4 Movement, mostly compromised with the enemy in the second period and went over to the side of reaction.
例2．下文是从《大学英语精读第六册》中选的一个超长的英语句子。请大家想想前边的例子，试着翻译（开头已经替你翻译了）：
原文：This happened for many complex reasons having to do with the sexual revolution, the efforts of the women‘s movement on the family, the dying off of the generation scarred by the Great Depression of the 1930s, a growing disillusionment with the ability of our institutions to deliver the goods, the failure of the economy to live up to people‘s expectations of a steady annual increase in income, a questioning of whether the values of a consumption economy are worth the hard work that pays for all the luxuries, an awareness that energy shortages and environmental hazards call for a new orientation, and a further evolution of individualism into the quest for less conforming personal life-styles.
译文：这种情况的发生有很多原因，有的与性解放有关，有的
汉译英时，要着力写出“紧”的句子，才风合乎英语的习惯，显示译者的驾驭能力。 16）汉语主信息在前，英语主信息在后。
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